Publicaciones de la categoría: Marketing farmacéutico

Personal branding

25 domingo Abr 2021

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Personal Branding es la gestión de la marca personal, posicionándola de forma que el observador, el público perciba que somos y lo que ofrecemos.
Existen es estrategias de posicionamiento y comunicación de las marcas personales.

Lo primero para posicionar el producto que es la persona es conocer como en todo «plan de marketing»: los puntos fuertes y débiles, como queremos que nos recuerden, cuales son los principales valores por los que queremos ser recordados.

Lo segundo usar la mejor plataforma para la «marca»: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, etc..


Facebook: es la que tiene mayor visibilidad, es la que más usuarios tiene 2740 millones de usuarios activos en el mundo, 3,8 millones en España.


Twitter: al tener limitado a 140 caracteres los contenidos, se usa mucho en periodismo y política con fines informativos, el uso del hashtags# nos ancla el mensaje en una palabra determinada a la que lo asocia. El número de usuarios en el mundo es de 353 millones, 4,1 millones de usuarios en España.


LinkedIn: es la plataforma más profesional, se hace bastante networking entre empresas y contactos profesionales, se mueve mucho con el campo laboral, 500 millones de usuarios en el mundo, 12 millones de usuarios en España.


Instagram: es la plataforma más creativa visualmente, se pueden usar imágenes con fotos, videos o dibujos en arte, 1.200 millones de usuarios en el mundo, 20 millones de usuarios en España.

Lo tercero es definir a que «público objetivo» nos queremos dirigir, quienes queremos que se queden con nuestro perfil, nuestro «nicho» hacia el que dirigimos la estrategia.


Construir la «marca personal» y manternerla requiere trabajo: tenemos que proporcionar un contenido atractivo, que llame la atención y sera recordado. Como comenzamos el artículo o la imagen que ponemos son importantes para cactar la imagen del lector.


También requiere de una organización en el tiempo, darle una periodicidad. Para eso es bueno usar una agenda o planing planificando los artículos que se van a publicar, aunque la realidad puede hacer que una noticia de inmediato nos lleve a improvisar. Publicar una o dos veces a la semana es suficiente, aunque hay profesionales que publican todos los días.


Las publicaciones nos brindan la oportunidad de hacer nuevos contactos, de interaccionar haciendo networking con ellos dando a «like», «compartirlos» o haciendo «comentarios», eso también nos da presencia, posiciona nuestros puntos de vista y define nuestra marca.


Podemos medir nuestras tácticas mediante herramientas: si tenemos blog o pagína web con «Google Analytics«, Facebook o Instagram tienen estadísticas propias de medición, Twitter con «Twitonomy» y LinkedIn con «Social Selling Index».

Bibliografía:


Peters, Tom; «Brand called you»,Ed.Fastcompany, 1997

https://www.fastcompany.com/28905/brand-called-you


Pérez Ortega, Andrés; «Cómo convertirse en la opción preferente», Ed. Esic, 2008

Innovation: Business Experimentation

12 viernes May 2017

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Accoding to Thomke a team organize a project for rapid iteration in order to exploit early information through “front-loaded” innovation porcesses, and experimenting frequently without overloading the organization.

Virtual experimentation and simulation enable new ways of working in R&D, in part by allowing, faster and more through experimentation and testing, minimizing physical product tes failure, enabling co-creation with customers, and supporting cross-discipline integration.

Virtual experimentation and simulation are not only about emerging technologies. Implementing these tolos effectively requires attention to a host of management issues, from decisions about investment and development to attention to processes and organizational resources to support them, to thinking about how they affect the approach to R&D.

The Virtual Experimentation & Simulation project is one o the groups working under the aegis of IRI´s research platform Digitilization and its implications for R&D Management. Designed to explore a broad range of issues relevant to digitalization and its likely effects on R&D organizations today and in the future, the platform incorporates three research groups:

  • Big Data: this tea mis focused on understanding how big data will inform, enable, and disrupt R&D, by examining it through the lenses of R&D strategy, human capital, technology, and process integration.
  • Collaboration: is comparing virutal and physical collaboration spaces with the object of identifying how collaboration may become boundaryless over time.
  • Virtual Experimentation & Simulation: is looking at the principles surrounding virtual spaces and their uses with an eye toward indetifying principles and best practices for determining when a virtual environment should be employed.

This potential for new kinds of exploration of the design space allows developers to learn about their designs in new ways, while at the same time continuosly improving their models to better represent reality.

 

Aductive Thinking Process

The abductive thinking process: the impact of virtual simulation tools on problem-solving and new product development organization. A paradigm will occur when simulation not only replaces physical tests and human thinking processes, but also enables new combinations o experiments and new ways of approaching and understanding phenomena.

Experimentation, a form of problem-solving, is a fundamental innovation activity and accounts for a significant part of total innovation cost and time. In many fields, the economics of experimentation are being radically affected by the use of new and greatly improved versions of methods such as computer simulation, mass screening, and rapid prototyping.

Employees working under high risk-taking climates tend to believe that their organization will defend them against risky external environments and tend to feel safeguarded from interpersonal and career risks, such that they do not fear material or reputational harm.

Management science and engineering management research have attempted to answer questions related to how often, when, and at what level o fidelity prototypes should be created and tested base don an organization´s schedule and budget.

Stefan H. Thomke, an authority on the management of innovation, is the William Barclay Harding Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School.

He is a widely published autor with more than one hundred articles, cases and notes published in books an leading journal. He is also autor of the books: “Experimentation Matters: Unlocking the Potential of New Technologies for Innovation” and “Managing Product and Service Development”

 

 

Bibliography:

  • Anita Friis Sommer & Steven Moskowitz, “Leveraging Virtual Experimentation and Simulation in R&d”, Online, 2016
  • Becker, M.C., Salvatore,P., and Zirpoli, F. “The impact of virtual simulation tolos on problema-solving and new product development organization”. Research Policy. 2005
  • S.H. Thomke, “Managing experimentation in the design of new products”, Researcher. 1998
  • S.H. Thomke, “Experimentation Matters: Unlocking the Potential of New Technologies for Innovation”, Harvard Business School Press. 2003
  • S.H. Thomke, “Managing Product and Service Development”, McGraw-Hill/Irwin. 2006

 

 

Links relationated:

  • Harvard Business Experimentation

https://hbr.org/2014/12/the-discipline-of-business-experimentation

  • Stephan Thomke from Harvard Business Schooll

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wn6EkFJ4q7g

Innovation: Portfolio Management

29 sábado Abr 2017

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Enterprise Project Portfolio Management (EPPM) is the practice of taking a top-down approach to managing all Project-intensive work and resources across the Enterprise.

Project portfolio management (PPM) refers to a process used by Project managers and Project management organizations (PMOs) to analyze the potential return on a doing a project. A key result of PPM is to decide which projects to fund in an apotimal manner. Project Porfolio Optimizaction (PPO) is the effort to make the best decisions posible under these conditions.

PPM and project management differ by number of projects. Project management looks to focus on an individual project´s, whereas project portfolio management takes into consideration every project or potential project and its viability.

PPM provides program and project managers in largue, program/project-driven organizations with the capabilities needed to manage the time, resources, skills, and budgets necesary to accomplish all interrelated tasks. These can include financial resources, inventory, human resources, technical skills, production and design.

Cooper 2

The objectives of PPM are to determine the optimal resource mix for delivery and to schedule activities to best archieve an orgaizations´s operational and financial goals, while honouring constraints imposed by customers, strategic objectives, or external ral-world factors.

The key aims of EPPM can be summarized as follows:

  • Prioritize hte right projects and program
  • Eliminate surprises: process to indentify potential problems earlier in the project lifecycle, to take corrective action before they impact financial results.
  • Build contingencies into the overall portfolio
  • Maintain response flexibility: quickly respond to escalating emergencies by maneuvering resources from other activities.
  • Do more with less: to ensure a consistent approach to all projects, programs, and portfolios while reducing costs.
  • Ensure informed decisions and governance
  • Extend best practise-wide
  • Understand future resource needs

Types of Portfolio Management:

  • Active Portfolio Management: the portfolio managers are actively involved in buying and selling of securities to ensure máximum profits to individuals.
  • Passive Portfolio Management: the portfolio manager deals with a fixed designed to match the current market scenario.
  • Discretionary Portfolio management services: an individual authorizes a portfolio manager to take care of his financial needs on his services.
  • Non-Discretionary Portfolioi management services: the portfolio manager can merely advise the client what is good and bad for him but the client reserves full right to take his own decisions.

The project portfolio management process helps companies predict the outcome and plan for projects that will offer the best results. It helps companies break down every detail of a proposed project-budgets, resources, tasks, timelines and goals. Using in-depth analysis of proposed projects, weighed against current projects, a company can define what risks offer the most rewards.

 

Dr. Robert G. Cooper is a Professor Emeritus of Marketing and Technology Management at University in Ontario, Canada. Is one of the most influential innovation thought leaderes in the business world today. He is considere one of the most important discoveries in the field innovation management. He has published more than 100 academic articles and eleven books, including: “ Portfolio Management for New Products”.

Bibliography:

  • Robert G. Cooper, Scott J. Edgett, Elko J. Kleinschmict; “Portfolio Management for new Products: Second edition. Hardcover”. January, 2002
  • Wikipedia

Links relationated:

  • Harvard University: management porfolio

https://hbr.org/2012/05/managing-your-innovation-portfolio

  • Economics from Oxford: management porfolio

https://academic.oup.com/rfs/article-abstract/9/2/511/1631102/Portfolio-Performance-Measurement-Theory-and

  • Robert G. Cooper and porftolio

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcxPoVLE7PI

 

 

The theory of disruptive innovation

23 domingo Abr 2017

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It was invented by Clayton Christensen, of Harvard Business School, in his book “The Innovator´s Dilemma”. Christensen used the term to describe innovations that create new markets by discovering new categories of customers.

He contrasted disruptive innovation with sustaining innovation, which improves existing products.

Empirical teste show that using disruptive theory makes us measurably and significantly more accurate in our predictions of which businesses will succeed.

The “innovator´s dilema” is the difficult choice an established company faces when it has to choose between holding an existing market by doing the same thing a bit better, or capturing new markets by embracing new technologies and adopting new business models.

Disruptive innovations usually find their first customers at the bottom of the market: as unproved, often unpolished, products, they cannot command a high Price. Incumbents are often complacent, slow to recognise the threat that their inferior competitors pose.

Clayton Magleby Christensen is an American business consultant, Professor of Business Administration at the Harvard University, is expert on innovation and growth. From 1979 to 1984 worked as a consultant and Project manager with the Boston Consulting Group (BCG),where worked strategy consulting. In 2000, Christensen founded Innosight a consulting firm that uses his theories of innovation to help companies create new growth businesses. In 2007, he founded Rose Park Advisors, a firm identifies and invests in disruptive companies.

The theory of disruptive innovation, has proved to be a powerful way of thinking about innovation-driven growth. Many leaders of small, entrepreneurial companies praise it as their guiding star; so do may executives at large, well-established organizations. This theory has been enormously influential in business circles and a powerful tool for predicting which industry entrants will succeed.

disruptive_innovation_21

“Disruption” describes a process in which a smaller company with fewer resources i sable to successfully challenge established incumbent businesses. Specifically, as incumbents focus on improving their products and services for their most demanding customers, they exceed the needs of some segments and ignore the needs of orders.

Disruptive innovations origínate in low-end or new-market footholds. In a new-market footholds, disrupters create a market where none existed. Put simply, they find a way to turn nonconsumers into consumers. Disruptive innovations don´t catch on with mainstream customers until quality catches up to their standards. Are initially considered inferior by most of an incumbent´s customers. The customers wait until its quality rises enough to satisfy them. Once that´s happened, they adopt the new product and happily accept its lower Price.

Disrupters often build business models that are very different from those of incumbents.

Some disruptive innovations succeed; some don´t. Companies that rise to the top in very different ways will be seen as sources of insight into a common strategy for succeeding. Managers may mix and match behaviours that are very likely inconsistent with one another and thus unlikely to yield the hoped-for result. When an entrant tackles incumbent competitors head-on, offering better products or services, the incumbents will accelerate their innovations to defend their business.

Incumbents rarely responded effectively to disruptive innovations, not why entrants eventually moved upmarket to challenge incumbents, over and over again. The same forces leading incumbents to ingore early-stage disruptions also compel disrupters ultimately to disrupt. Researchers realized that a company´s propersity for strategic change is profoundly affected by the interests of customers who provide the resources the firm needs to survive. Incumbents listen to their existing customers. Incumbents´s focus on their existing customers becomes institutionalized in internal processes that make it difficult for even managers to shift investiment to disruptive innovations.

New-market disruptions take hold in a completely new value network and appeal to customers who have previously gone without the product.

The theory with the time has become more powerful and practicable.

Bibliography:

  • Clayton M. Christensen, “The Innovator´s Dilemma”, Harvard Business School Press, 1997
  • Clayton M. Christensen, Michael E. Raynor, Rory McDonald, “ What is Disruptive Innovation?, Harvard Business Review, December, 2015
  • Clayton M. Christensen, “Strategy & Innovation”,
  • A. W., “What disruptive innovation mean”, The Economist, Jan, 2015
  • Daniel Goleman, “Leadership & Managing People”, 2017
  • Wikipedia

Links relationated:

  • Clayton M. Christensen

http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/profile.aspx?facId=6437

  • Innosight

http://www.claytonchristensen.com/ideas-in-action/innosight-consulting/

  • Disruptive innovation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rpkoCZ4vBSI

 

 

 

Innovation: types of creativity

16 domingo Abr 2017

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Kerrie Unsworth (is a Professor at Leeds University Business School, interested in studying motivation, creativity, pro-environmental behaviours and well-being), poposed in “Unpacking creativity” (2001) that there was more than just raw intelligence that influenced the creativie process. She argues that context was just as important of a factor of creativity as cognitive ability was. Looked two aspects of context: the problem type and motivation.

Closed problems: are instances when a problem is clearly.

Open problems: must be discovered and searched for.

Using the different types of motivation and problems, Unsworth created a matrix that broke down creativity into four arch-types.

Unsworth

Responsive Creativity

  • Most prevalent form of creativity studied
  • Individuals do a previously set creativity problema or task and complete it given the external demands and requirements
  • Individual has the least control over problema solving choice
  • We decide to create mor efficient ways for making it for management

Expected Creativity

  • External goal or outcome with a selfdiscovered solutions selected by the problema solvers
  • Select from a set the particular problems/ issues about which they will think creatively and conbribute their responses
  • Open Managenement want us to find ways of making it

Contributory Creativity

  • Individuals self-determined and based upon a problem clearly formulated by others
  • Individuals who elect to engage in creativity to help solve problems with which they are not directly involved
  • We want to discover way fo making it for ourselves

Proactive Creativity

  • Individuals think creatively about open ended issues and problems that interest them
  • Individuals spontaneously provide creative proposals that were not requested
  • Difficult but important to assess

Implication of this analysis for creative thinking is that the types of creative thinking in several ways, the creative process may change depending upon the type of creativity:

Creative is more constrained, when they are engaging in creative thinking for external reasons and are doing tasks or problems that are more closed.

Creative will be stronger, when requiring more effort (proactive and contributory creativity) than for types requiring more effort (responsive and expected creativity)

Relationship between motivation and creativity will be stronger for those types requiring more effort (proactive and contributory)

Bibliography:

  • Unsworth, K, “Unpacking creativity”, The Academy of Management Review, 26, (2) 286-297, 2001

  • Wikipedia

Links relationated:

  • Kerrie Unsworth

http://business.leeds.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-directory/profile/kerrie-unsworth/

Innovation: Creativity

09 domingo Abr 2017

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creativity

Peter Drucker taught us: “The business Enterprise has two basic functions: marketing and innovation”.

Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and somehow valuable is formed. The created ítem may be intangible (service) or a physical object (product) what customer demands.

Teresa Amabile, is the Profesor of Business Administration at Harvard Buisness, argued that to enhance creativity in business, three components were needed:

Creativite

  • Expertise (technical, procedural and intelectual knowledge).
  • Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imaginatively people approach problesm),
  • Motivation (especially intrinsic motivtion)

There are two types of motivation:

  • Extrinsic motivation: external factors,
  • Intrinsic motivation: inside an individual, satisfaction, enjoyment of work

6 managerial practices to encourage motivation are:

  • Challenge: matching people with the right assignments
  • Freedom: giving people autonomy
  • Resources
  • Work group features
  • Supervisory encouragement
  • Organizational support

Two important assumptions underlie the Amabile´s theory:

  1. There is continuum from low, ordinary levels of creativity found in everyday life to the highest levels of creativity found in historically significant inventions
  2. Related underlying assumption is that there are degrees of creativity in the work of any single individual, even within one domain.

According to the expanded theory, has undergone considerable evolution since 1988, intrinsicmotivation and creativity might actually be enhanced, this process is termed “motivacional synergy”, (Amabile, 1993) .

In organization, there are possibilities por innovation facilitates, brainstorming can result in surpresing innovations. A posible attitude, and a low-stress environment, can support the greater mental flexibility and training.

 

Bibliography:

  • Amabile, T. M, “The Social Psychology of Creativity: A Componential Conceptualization”, Journal of Personality and Social Psycology 45, no2, 1983
  • Carol Kennedy, “Guide to the management gurus”, Random House Business Books, 1991
  • Wikipeda

Links relationated:

  • Teresa M. Amabile: theory of creativity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k5j6uNEdai8

 

  • Harvard Business School

https://www.exed.hbs.edu/programs/gmp/Pages/default.aspx?lb=fy17:gmp

Innovation: lifecycle

01 sábado Abr 2017

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Engaging with open innovation is a difficult process which requires time and an understanding of an orgnanisation´s own processes.

Challenges associated with engaging with open innovation across the lifecycle of a process and a product.

Everett M. Rogers was an American communication theorist and sociologist, who originated the diffussion of innovations theory and introduced the term early adopter. He was distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Communication and Journalism at the University of New Mexico. “Diffusion of Innovations” was published in 1962, it became the second most-cited book in the social sciences.

innovations

Rogers proposes that adoprters of any new innovation or idea can be categorized as:

  • Innovators 2,5%
  • Early adopters 13,5%
  • Early mayority 34%
  • Late maority 34%
  • Laggards 16%

Based on the mathematically Bell curve.

Each adopter´s willingness and ability to adopt an innovation depends on their:

  • Awareness
  • Interest
  • Evaluation
  • Trial
  • Adoption

People can fall into different categories for different innovations. The graph shows acumulative percentage of adopters over time-slow at the start, more rapid as adoption increases, then leveling off until only a small percentage of laggards have not adopted.

Are two types of innovative strategies for a large company:

Sustaining innovation: evolutionary changes in their markets, products, etc. valued by their existing customers, fairly well.

Disruptive innovation: radical shifts in technology, customers, regulatory changes, etc, that create new markets. It is innovation that go after new markets, new customers, new technologies, etc. are best built outside a large company´s existing organization. In a large company is attempting to solve two simultaneous unknowns: the customer/market is unknown, and the product feature set is unknown.

Mastering disruptive innovation in a large company requires:

  • Different people
  • Different processes

 

Bibliography:

  • Everett Roggers, “ Diffusion of Innovations”, 5th Edition, Ed. Simon and Schuster, 2003

  • Wikipedia

 

Links relationed:

  • Innovation Management

http://www.innovationmanagement.se/tag/innovation-life-cycle-processes/

 

 

Architectural Innovation

25 sábado Mar 2017

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algebra-1238600_1280

 

Architectural innovation therefore presents established organizations with subtle challenges that may have significant competitive implications.

 

In 1990, Rebecca M. Henderson from MIT and Kim B.Clark from Harvard University wrote an article: “The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms”, describe an innovation typology that was base on an innovation´s impacto on core design components and relationships between them.

cuadro

 

The distinctions between radical, incremental, and architectural innovations are matters of degree

 

  • Incremental innovation: introduce quality improvements in core components. The Word renovation would more precisely describe this type of innovation.Tends to reinforce the competitive positions or established firms.

 

  • Modular innovation: may result in the complete redesign of core components, while leaving linkages between the components unchanged.

 

  • Architectural innovation: changes the nature of internations between core components, while reinforcing the core design concepts.

 

Is designed to draw attention to innovations that use many existing core design concepts in a new architecture and that therefore have a more significat impacto on the relationships between components than on the technologies of the components themselves.

 

  • Radical innovations: introduce a new meaning, potentially a paradigm shift.

 

Creates unmistakable challenges for established firms, since it destroys the usefulness of their existing capabilities.

 

 

 

The concept of architectural innovation and the related concepts of component and architectural knowledge have a number of important implications. Open up new areas in understanding the connections between innovation and organizational capability. An architectural innovation´s affect despends in a direct way on the nature of organizational learning. Learning about changes in architecture-about new interactions across components may therefore require explicit management and attention.

 

To the degree that manufacturing, marketing, and finance rely on communication channels, information filters, and problem-solving strategies to integrate their work together, architectural innovation at the firm level may also be a significant issue. An understanding of architectural innovation would be useful to discussions of the effect o technology on competitive strategy.

 

Modular Innovations is where you maintain the architecture and modify and modify the modules. Architectural innovation is where the architecture changes.

 

 

Some issues to consider:

 

  1. By creating incompatibilities you develop lock in features and generate high switching costs.

  2. By developing modules you do not have to change the underlying architecture.

  3. Modular systems shorten PLC.

  4. It stimulates specialization.

  5. Increases scale and differentiation.

  6. Builds alliances.

  7. Competitiors form Satndards organizations to ensure consistency in the development of systems.

  8. Market Power. Sometimes powerful groups and organizations can prevent the best technology from being utilized.

  9. Reduces risk increases investment.

  10. Adoption of new architecture can be slow.

  11. Modular and architectural innovation are the extreme cases.

  12. Modular complementary innovation. Complementary modules emerge that increase the potential of the new module.

  13. Modular transformation, a new module may act as a bridge between two different architecture.

  14. Modular upgrading may occur when a new or improved module spawns complementary modules.

  15. Architectural Knowledge. Occasionally a company not normally seen as a threat transforms the competitie environment.

  16. First Mover Advantage. Building a dominant market share.

 

 

Bibliography:

 

  • Henderson & Clark Architectural innovation: “The reconfiguration of existing product technologies and the failure of established firms”, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol.35, No.1, Ed. Sage Publications, Inc; Johnson Graduate School o Management, Cornell University.:1990

 

  • Wikipedia

 

 

 

Links relationed:

 

  • Harvard Business School

http://www.shepleybulfinch.com/project/harvard-business-school/A42/

 

  • Rebecca M. Henderson

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BBgLJgAZ6wc

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Innovation

20 lunes Mar 2017

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innovation

An innovator, is a person who introduces into reality, opens a new area.

Diffusion of innovation research was started in 1903 by researcher Gabriel Tarde. Was a French sociologist, criminologist and social psycologist who conceived sociology as base on small psycological interactions among individuals. Amon the concepts that Tarde initiated were the group mind and economic psychology and the develop.

Tarde defined the innovation-decision process as a series o steps that includes:

  1. First knowledge
  2. Forming an attitude
  3. A decisión to adopt or reject
  4. Implementation and use
  5. Confirmation of the decisión

This process has been proposed that the life cycle of innovations can be described using “s-curve” or “diffusion curve”, s-curve relations the productivity against time.

  • In early stage of a particular innovation, growth is relativey slow,
  • after customers begin to demand and the product growth increases more rapidly
  • Towards the end o its lifecyce, growth slows and maye ven begin to decline
  • In the later stages, no amount of new investment in that product will yield a normal rate of return.

Innovation is the result o a process that brings various novel ideas in a way that they affect society: Industrial economics will typically be working on innovations renewal and enlargement of products, services and markets, development of new methods of production; and establishment of new management systems; and found services to meet the growing consumer demand.

Positive changes in the organizational context:

  • Efficiency
  • Productivity
  • Quality
  • Competitiveness
  • Market sahere

Peter Drucker (Austrian-born American management consultant, educator, and autor, the founder of modern management ), wrote:

“Executives and managers need to break away from traditional ways of thinking and use chang to their advantage. It is a time of risk bute ven greater opportunity. The world of work is changing with the increase in the use of technology and both companies and businesses are becoming increasingly competitive”.

“Changes in industry structure, in market structure, in local and global demographics, in human perception, mood and menaning, in scientific knowledge, etc.”

Measure of innovation at the organizational level relates to individuals, team-level assessments, and prívate companies with workshops, consultants, or internal benchmarking.

Companies will typically be working on new innovations that will eventually replace older ones.

Bibliografía:

  • Burgher, Peter H, “Changement, Understanding&Managing Business”, Lexington Books, 1979
  • Carl Heyel “ The encyclopedia of management”, Van Nostrand Rinhold Company, 1982
  • Eliot D. Chapple “Culture and Biological man, explorations in behavioral anthropology”, Cornell University, 1970
  • Spencer Johnson “Who Moved my Cheese?”Spencer Jhonson, 1998
  • Tom Peters “Liberation Management” Excel, 1992

  • Wikipedia

Links:

  • “Innovation” Harvard

https://hbr.org/topic/innovation

https://i-lab.harvard.edu/

 

 

“El condicionamiento operante” de Skinner y la venta

19 domingo Feb 2017

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En una organización, es necesario identificar los diferentes tipos de personas para colocarlas en un grupo de trabajo donde puedan desarrollar sus necesidades, comportamientos y actitudes para que puedan lograr sus objetivos personales y los de la organización.

También el comportamiento del consumidor hay que tenerlo en cuenta en las tácticas del marketing: aumentando la fidelización y creando productos que le satisfagan mediante el conocimiento de sus necesidades.

 

Los orígenes filosóficos de los conceptos motivacionales:

  • comienzan en la Antigua Grecia, con Platón y Aristóteles,
  • con el dualismo cuerpo vs. Mente; con Santo Tomás de Aquino también seguimos con la dualidad (impulsos irracionales basados en el placer – cuerpo-, impulsos racionales basados en la voluntad – mente-).
  • Para Descartes comprender la motivación es comprender “la voluntad”, el cuerpo es el agente mecánico pasivo y la voluntad el agente inmaterial activo
  • Con Darwin surge el determinismo biológico, el instinto surge de la herencia genética y explica la conducta como algo adaptativo.
  • Para Freud toda conducta está motivada, su propósito es satisfacer las necesidades corporales.
  • Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) fue junto con Tolman el máximo representante del neoconductismo en los años treinta y cuarenta. Hull se integró en la investigación de laboratorio sobre el aprendizaje “teoría de la pulsión de Hull”: la motivación se puede predecir, la pulsión es función monotónica creciente de la necesidad corporal total, las respuestas que reducen la pulsión refuerzan el hábito (aprendizaje). La pulsión energizaba la conducta y el hábito la dirigía.

                E (conducta) = H (fuerza del hábito) x D (pulsión) x K (incentivo)

Sin pulsión (D=0) o sin hábito (H=0), no hay actividad conductual (E=0)

 

El neoconductismo de Hull y Tolman supuso la inclusión de variables intervinientes entre el estímulo y la respuesta.

Antecedente al trabajo de Skinner, es J.B. Watson, reconocido como el fundador del conductismo psicológico. En el último cuarto del siglo XIX se establecieron los primeros laboratorios psicológicos, y la Psicología comenzó a ser una ciencia empírica bajo William James en América.  Watson dio a la psicología una orientación nueva cuando en 1913 estableció que el objetivo de la psicología debía de ser la conducta:

  • El ambiente es mucho más importante que la herencia en la determinación de la conducta
  • La importancia de el condicionamiento de los reflejos en los procesos de aprendizaje, influenciado por Pavlov.

En la psicología experimental se vislumbraba un conductismo radical que tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial iba a sustituir a todos los demás conductismos. B.F. Skinner, un escritor convertido en psicólogo, había comenzado en 1931 a desarrollar un conductismo radical en la línea de Watson, pero con un nuevo conjunto de conceptos técnicos.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner, Susquehanna, 1904 – Cambridge, EE.UU., 1990) Psicólogo estadounidense, obtuvo el doctorado en psicología por la Universidad de Harvard en 1931, y continuó sus investigaciones con el profesor Crozier, en 1936.

Influido por los reflejos condicionados de Pavlov y por el conductismo de John B. Watson, Skinner intentó explicar la conducta como un conjunto de respuestas fisiológicas condicionadas por el entorno y profundizó en las posibilidades que ofrecía el control científico de la conducta mediante técnicas de refuerzo (premio de la conducta deseada).

Entre los experimentos más conocidos está el adiestramiento de palomas para jugar al pimpón, la llamada “caja de Skinner”, utilizada para el condicionamiento de los animales, o el diseño de un “entorno artificial” para los primeros años de vida de las personas.

El experimento de de la caja de Skinner: consiste en una caja completamente insonorizada con una luz uniforme, el animal se introduce en ella, en la caja hay una palanca que el animal (una rata), deberá presionar para conseguir el objetivo de alimentarse (refuerzo), se recoge información de aciertos y fallos, en relación con el programa de reforzamiento.

ED (luz o sonido) + ER (dispensador de comida) = RC (presionar palanca)

caja_de_skinner

La teoría del “Condicionamiento operante de Skinner”, llamado también instrumental y hoy en día experimental de la conducta (AEC), se puede definir como una teoría psicológica del aprendizaje que explica la conducta voluntaria del cuerpo, en su relación con el medio ambiente, basados en un método experimental.

Ante un estímulo, se produce una respuesta voluntaria, la cual, puede ser reforzada de manera positiva o negativa provocando que la conducta operante se fortalezca o debilite. Skinner afirmará que “el condicionamiento operante modifica la conducta en la misma forma en que un escultor moldea un montón de arcilla”. Cuando la respuesta es positiva (consecuencias reforzadoras) se repetirá la conducta, si las consecuencias son negativas (consecuencias inhibidoras) no se repetirá.

Los programas de reforzamiento son reglas que muestran la pauta de aparición de respuestas seguidas de un reforzador, influyendo en el aprendizaje del individuo: estímulo-respuesta-reforzador:

  • refuerzo de la razón fija: se refuerza un comportamiento después de un número de respuestas, premio después 10 tareas realizadas RF10
  • refuerzo de razón variable: se refuerza al azar, después de un promedio, en una tarea con un promedio de 20, RV20
  • refuerzo de intervalo fijo: se refuerza un comportamiento después de un tiempo, IF1
  • refuerzo de intervalo variable: se refuerza un comportamiento en intervalos variables, pero en torno a un promedio, IV3

Estas tácticas en marketing, se basan en fidelizar a los clientes: tarjetas, premios, descuentos, etc.…

A parte del aprendizaje por reforzamiento hay otros:

Aprendizaje por evitación: el organismo adquiere una conducta nueva, aumentando la frecuencia de aparición para que no regrese un estímulo aversivo o desagradable.

Aprendizaje por superstición: De forma casual, una conducta reforzada o aversiva aumenta la frecuencia de aparición de alguna conducta.

Aprendizaje por castigo: aumenta la frecuencia de conductas que no son seguidas de estímulos aversivos o desagradables.

La publicidad, refuerza la conducta mediante premios o descuentos, reforzando la actitud beneficiosa para la empresa. Se asocian para el consumidor estímulos externos como una imagen o un sonido, relacionándolo con comida o placer, etc.…

 

Links relacionados: 

  • Conductismo UNED:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nOy-4Zqckws 

  • Skinner:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JtBGq2eAaXY

 

 

Bibliografía

. Tomas H. Leahey Elvira, “Historia de la Psicología”, Ed. Pearson Educación, 2009

. Carlos Santamaría, “Historia de la Psicología”, E. Ariel Psicología, 2009

. Leslie Stevenson, “Siete teorías de la Naturaleza Humana”, Ed. Cátedra, 1994

. B.F. Skinner, “Ciencia y conducta humana”, Ed. Fontanella,. 1974

. B.F. Skinner, “Más allá de la libertad y la dignidad”, Fontanella, 1972

. B.F. Skinner, “Walden Dos”, Ed. Fontanella, 1968

. Wikipedia